Speaking hajesfandiari
'speaking ' Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997) .It’s a vehicle for participating in class activities ( Chastain, 1988) .we speak according to the situation . while speaking is a dynamic and productive process that is by the result of interrelation. so assume speaking as an interactive, contextualized and communicative event. our speech is based on the context. in speaking we have three groups of views: environmentalist, innatist and interactionist. in 1960s we have learning this process being conditional by external environment rather than human internal mental process. language is an oral phenomenon and considered as a habit. input is an external stimulus and response include imitating and repeating input. if the response is correct we have receive and reinforcement. this situation inferred to ALM that is oral speaking. this method is based on drill and substituation, exercise, repeat, grammar and pronunciation. speaking was not enough. in 1990 we had only oral repetition of grammatical structure. then Chomsky came , regardless of environment where to produce language . mental and cognitive process involved in generating language. but it doesn't infer to any special method. speaking was an abstract process in isolation and didn't include communication, social context and relationship between language and meaning. In 1980s we had interactionist by role linguistic environment in interaction with innate capacity for language development. Levelt proposed that message should be planned based on : 1. conceptualization: based on context 2. formulation : accessing, choosing word and phrases to express meaning 3. articulation : organs that makes message 4. monitoring : correct mistakes and we can add automation to the above. so speaking is not in isolation any more. A complex process , interpersonal and related to psychomotor. According to Levelet now speaking is used in communication and affected by context. and in functional view by Halliday people learn to use language in cultural and social context so it became contextualized process. then we followed by intended meaning that is pragmatics and study on speech acts. Field that means topic, tenor that means participants relationship and mode that is channel of communications. Then we have intented meaning and pragmatigs, Pragmatics are some communication that not only focus on speaker’s intention but on the effect that those intention have on hearers. We use sppech act (request , apologize, complain, refuse) that means use of utterance on various situation, ( by considering politeness) then Hymes criticized Chomsky by definition of competence and performance. he explained discourse competence by speaker's ability to use discourse feature. linguistic competence about grammar and phonology. pragmatic competence that means speaker's knowledge of function or illocutionary in utterance. he spoke about intercultural competence that is how to produce an appropriate spoken text within a particular sociocultural context. and at last he proposed strategic competence as a framework that add to above. we have now a problem in speaking that is impermanence because we don't have review in writing or scanning in reading. When we have features in different stories, introductions , background information , .... and we expect a response from another speaker. We have some special conversation to open and close our speaking. And we alot of repetition in both content and form. sociolinguistics believed that language can be used to mark group membership and interpersonal or distance whether at lexical level, lexico-grammaticall and phonological or genre level. then psycolinguistics spoke about interaction, content, topic, common phrase and speech on occasion. they belived in : 1. Conceptualisation - Become familiar with the content of the talk - Organize the content of the talk for speech - Explore additional content to add 2. Formulation - Identify and recall relevant vocabulary and grammar for managing the content of the talk and the interpersonal functions (such as referential markers, aspect, tense and modality) - Try out alternative vocabulary and grammatical resources - Monitor the grammatical features required by the vocabulary and syntax - Develop cohesion 3. Output - Attend to speech production - Attend to interlocutors’ understanding ( Jordens, 2006) we can use pre and post activity, jigsaw, whole class talk, choosing topic to teach speaking. for encouraging students , it 's better to have authentic speaking and based on real world. we can have purpose and refer it to proper schema, motivation, feedback and link between listener and speaker, and we have talk to in answering the question or summarizing a movie and in contrary with talk with that means interact with other speaker we should regard intonation, stress, loudness and tone for better speaking and use proper pauses. Turn taking is a collaborative behaviour, too. Speaking in difficult context requires difficult kind of interaction. We should be completely aware before production. we have negotiations here those are some strategy in native language that will be used in second language too. we use gambits for initiating and terminating the conversation , we should use connectors and good feedback , accuracy, fluency , motivation, authenticity , correction , and link between listener and speaker. There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves: *interactive, *partially interactive, and *non-interactive. Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and body language whether or not he or she is being understood. Some few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive, such as when recording a speech for a radio broadcast .